International Business Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

International Business Strategy - Case Study Example In addition, this business strategy report identifies the existing cultural and institutional differences between the domestic location of the parent company and the host location of the proposed European subsidiary. The identification of differences is followed by the evaluation and assessment of the existing differences that are likely to influence the operations of the parent company in the host location and hence affect the achievement of the primary objectives of India Motors. And accordingly the report provides recommendations and suggestions as how to deal with these differences. Lastly, the report provides suggestions for the adoption of basic organisational structures and the control strategies that will be in enhance the minimisation of institutional and cultural differences. According to Michael E. Porter, "the prosperity of a nation is not inherited but created" (Porter M.E., 1990). He emphasizes that the prosperity and opulence of a country does not stem out of its national inheritance or bequests or for that matter a nation's labour resources, its currency value or the interest rates. But a nation's competitiveness and the conclusive prosperity depends on the capability of the nation's industry to upgrade, innovate, create and harness its limited resources to the maximum (Porter M.E., 1990). Due to the rapid advancements made in technological and information spheres, the economic developments in the last few decades have witnessed a rapid increase in the global integration of economic activities worldwide. Major countries and cities are being assimilated into the global network through the flow of technology, commodities, capital, information and labour (Dawson J.A. & Larke R., 2003). This development which is more commonly referred to as globalisation has made industries and companies to look beyond its domestic horizons towards international destinations and markets to upgrade, innovate, create and harness their limited resources to create a sustainable competitive advantage that will result in the overall national prosperity. Companies, business firms and enterprises in every industry today, want to take advantage of this modern phenomenon of globalisation so as to increase and sustain their competitive advantage. Their search for new and more effective strategies to benefit from this phenomenon has lead to companies resorting to global strategies, which in the economic terms is known as internationalisation strategy. Strategic alliances, international partnerships, Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) making entries into the international markets are some examples of internationalisation strategies. The basis of these strategies is to gain competitive advantage over its competitors and the long term sustenance of the gained competitive advan

Wk 2 questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wk 2 questions - Essay Example In macro needs assessments, surveys will probably be required. In contrast, in very micro settings, consultations with the local population and professional judgment can suffice to make a valid need assessment. This is because in very micro-settings, the community people can be convened for headcounts to substitute for surveys or census and professional judgment based on ocular inspection or rapid random sample or 100% physical check-ups on the population can suffice to identify health needs. If resources are limited then a combination of the following can be done to make rapid needs assessment: 1) key informant interviews; 2) focused group discussion; 3) consultations meetings with the community, local authorities, and local professionals; and 4) workshops with community leaders, local authorities, and local professionals. In the key-informant interviews, we focus on the local people or non-residents of the community whom we believe have an intimate of the locality. For instance, community leaders and anthropologists/sociologists who have been studying the community can be classified as â€Å"key informants†. In a focus group discussion, we convene a small group who are usually composed of people whom we can also classify as key informants to discuss needs and make an assessment of the situation or needs of the community under our supervision. In consultations meetings with the community and other stakeholders, we can convene a meeting with them even without maki ng a distinction between key informants and non-key informants and discuss with them community needs. We ask them to identify for us what their community needs are---under our supervision, of course. Workshops are very similar with focused group discussion except that the latter are more democratic and participatory. The unities arrived at workshop are usually stake-holder driven rather than driven by

Equipment and Books Essay Example for Free

Equipment and Books Essay Use of persons name Specific dedication for person to know why he being recognized Public display of all awards Follow-ups Timely Manner If motivation is properly handled, employees will always be happy and the organization will retain their staff for longer time periods. Educational workplaces require books and equipment such as computers, laboratory equipments, and agricultural equipments for all staff and students. If equipment is not adequate, the staff may be strained and this may cause unnecessary delays in lectures and work. Some workplaces may lack current books because of proper funding and this may pose a major challenge to the staff. Cultural Differences Educational workplaces often are filled with people from different cultures. Cultural beliefs influence human behaviors to a great extent and as cultures differ it often makes it difficult to design an environment that is conducive to performance and satisfaction. An example would be a colleague who believes that women should not expose their faces. This cultural diversity will often make it difficult for women to associate with individuals who may find difficulty in relating to them. Cultural differences influences the following in educational workplaces Mode of dressing Food served; some people eat snakes and frogs while to others don’t Associations in the institution Language used Team work In any workplace, teamwork poses challenges to many people. This is because of attitudes, values beliefs and behavior. Some individuals may have bad attitude which may affect the goal being sought after by the team, thus affecting other group members. Others may exhibit behaviors that one may not wish to associate with. In order to find compatibility, educational workplaces should have working teamwork members who encourage all individuals to associate with others without consideration of their culture. Team work may result in positive consequences for competing teams and these instances may follow: Team members becoming more close and displaying greater loyalty from its members and some members who are close in rank may bury some of their internal differences. Team climate changes from informal, casual, playful and work and task oriented members as well, while concerns for member’s psychological needs decline while concern for task accomplishment is increased. Leadership patterns tend to change from more democratic toward more autocratic while the team becomes more willing to tolerate autocratic leadership Each team becomes more structured and organized Each team demands more loyalty and conformity from its members in order to be able to present a â€Å"solid front† What happens between competing team? Each team begins to see the other teams as the enemy, rather than merely a neutral object. Each team begins to experience distortions of perception and tends to perceive only the best outcomes while denying weakness and allows competing teams to perceive only negative assumptions of the other team members while denying their strengths, as each team is likely to develop a negative stereotype of the other such as saying, â€Å"They don’t play fair like we do. † Hostility toward the other team increases while interaction and communication with the other team decreases, thus it becomes easier to maintain negative stereotypes and more difficult to correct perceptual distortions. If the teams are forced into interaction, for example, or if they are forced to listen to representatives pleading their own and the other’s causes, in reference to some task that each team, they are likely to listen more closely to their own representative and not to listen to the representative of the another’s team member, except to find fault with his presentation, in other words, team members tend to listen only for that which supports their own position and stereotype. What happens to the winner? Winners retains their confidence and may become even more cohesive Winner tends to release more tension and become more casual and playful. Winner lean towards higher intra-groups and display more cooperation and concern for other member’s needs. Winners can become complacent and feel that winning has confirmed a positive stereotype and as the negative stereotypes of the â€Å"enemy† team, there is little basis for reevaluating perceptions or reexamining team operations, in order to learn how to improve them. What happens to the loser? If the situation permits some ambiguity in the decision (if judges have rendered it as a close game), there is a strong tendency for the loser to deny or distort the reality of losing and instead, the loser will find psychological escapes such as (the judges were biased) or (the judges did not really explain the rules of the game, clearly) or possibly they may think (if luck had not been against us at the one key point, we would have won,† and so on. If loss is accepted, the losing team tends to splinter and as unresolved conflicts come to surface, fights may breaks out. A losing team member is more tense and may be ready to work harder and may be desperate to find someone or something to blame their loss on. They may blame the team leader, the judges who decided against them or even the rules or the game. (The â€Å"lean and hungry† state). A losing member may look for inter-group cooperation, have little concern for other team member’s needs or huge concern for recouping, by working harder. A losing team member often learn a lot about themselves while working as a team, because positive and negative stereotypes of the other team are upset by their own loss, forcing a reevaluation of perceptions as a consequence and a losing member is more likely to reorganize their ideas and accept their loss more realistically. J. FUNDS In a workplace, funding a project that is viewed as personal is not easy. For example, funding research by one lecturer may be very difficult, although the outcome may benefit the institution and again, some projects may be very expensive and even the institution may not have the capacity to fund the project, therefore they may need external funding. Workplace funds may also be misused by staff members.

A Synthesis of Sildenafil

A Synthesis of Sildenafil For many reasons, this route was assumed suboptimal as a commercial manufacturing for example; it is linear with nine steps, sulphonyl chloride, which is one of the toxic substances produced from this route is in the final bond-forming reaction. Final material required a lot of recrystallizations to reduce the toxic impurities to appropriately low levels in order to produce the high quality of drug required by pharmaceutical company. Due to competing hydrolysis through the increased quenched times on scale-up chlorosulphonation in chemical development; the difficulties of scaling-up reactions are well-known. In this route, 2-pentanone and diethyl oxalate are condensed to give the diketoester 1. Then, cyclizating the diketoester by hydrazine produces pyrazole 2 which methylated with selective to give pyrazole3. Hydrolysing the reaction generated the acid 4, then convert acid to the amide by nitration to give nitropyrazole 5, which is common intermediate in all synthetic routes. Reduction of 5 with tin (II) chloride dehydrate to give the amine 6 which is by 2-ethoxybenzoyl chloride was acylated to produce diamide 7. The later was cyclized using aqueous sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide to result in 8 pyrazolo[4,3-d]pyrimidin-7-one. Sildenafil was produced by selective chlorosulfonation and reaction with N-methylpiperazine.(6) Optimization of the cyclization reaction to make the pyrimidinone was the key finding during the development of the medicinal chemistry route, which impacted on the programme as a whole. Cyclization of compound 4 was done by sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide, which are an aqueous alcoholic solution and lead to moderate yield (30-70%). The hydrolysis of the carboxamide to give the acid either in the presence or absence of the hydrogen peroxide was the main side product from the medicinal reaction. To avoid the hydrolysis side product, cyclization was conducted under anhydrous conditions, KOtBu/ButOH and the reaction continued in 100% product without detected impurities. By considering reordering the steps, the clean cyclization was the final bond-forming reaction. (1) Modification of the medicinal route: A lot of modifications were applied into medicinal chemistry route, which was used at the beginning of the project to prepare fifty kilograms and support supply for the four years. (6) For early scale-up, the tin (II) chloride reduction was removed. Tin is major environmental polluter and a heavy metal. It was replaced with a catalytic hydrogenation. At the early age of the sildenafil production, a tin chloride reduction was employed because the hydrogenation reduction was not in operation. The reason for inefficient of the hydrogenation was a presence of trace levels of sulfur impurities which poison the hydrogenation reaction. Switching to stoichiometric thionyl chloride is one example that controlled sulfur impurities and allows the reliability of the catalytic hydrogenation reaction. Using a hydrogenation, there are options for solvent and catalyst recovery and water is the only by-product. (5) Hydrogen peroxide was used in cyclization method to convert 7 to 8, but it causes skin burns. Furthermore, in contact with organic materials, it is a fire and transportation hazardous. Then, it was replaced with KOtBu/ButOH. Rather than using oxalyl chloride, thionyl chloride is used to prepare 2-ethoxybenzoyl chloride which eliminates exposure to carbon monoxide emissions by workers. (5) Through formation of pyrazole 3 which is an exothermic reaction, a solvent was introduced. Moreover, for 5 preparations, toluene was introduced as a solvent which reduces the level of thionyl chloride from 1.6 to 1.8 equivalents. (6) Sildenafil Citrate Sildenafil Commercial Route: Selection: The target from Sildenafil citrate was for treatment of angina when entered development. But the clinical results were failed. Pfizer made a trial with 12 patients tolerate from male erectile dysfunction in 1994. The results showed improvements in the problems of 10 patients. As a consequence, sildenafil citrate development became one of the highest priorities in the Pfizer portfolio (6). There are many advantages of commercial route over the optimized medicinal one, for example; The synthesis was redesigned to make convergence. The final bond forming step is the clean cyclisation reaction and at the start of the synthesis, the potentially toxic materials occur. Large volumes of aqueous acidic waste require an increased level of hydrolysis and neutralization through a larger scale is an example of environmental and scale-up issues associated with chlorosulphonation reaction. In order to reduce these issues, they are placed at the start of the synthesis. Hence, low molecular weight and cheaper materials are used. (5). DEVELOPMENT: Sulfonamide preparation: Through pyrazole 5, many routes of synthesis proceeded. Using chlorosulfonic acid, 2-ethoxybenzoic acid is Chlorosulfonated by using 1 mol of thionyl chloride to convert the intermediate sulfonic acid to the sulfonyl chloride. Due to low melting point of 2-ethoxybenzoic acid (19-20 C) mp, low molecular volumes of chlorosulfonic acid and thionyl chloride are used and hence no solubilisation. Initially, the sulfonamide 9 was isolated as unusual double salt 10 which is insoluble and difficult to use. Moreover, in order to obtain the double salt to crystallize, the sulphonyl chloride should be dry which lead to a lot of acidic, corrosive fumes in a pilot plant scale. Then, it was discovered that 9 can be isolated as its highly crystalline zwitterions by treatment the double salt with water to dissociate and produce a new form of free crystalline amino acids 8. For efficiency, the sulfonyl chloride was converted to sulfonamide 9 by resuspended in water and reaction with N-methylpiperazine. At the end of the reaction, by the addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide, the pH was adjusted to the isoelectric point and the precipitated compound 8 collected by filtration. As a result, during sulfonamide preparation, no organic solvents are used. Hydrogenation and coupling reaction: In medicinal chemistry, the tin (II) chloride reduction was replaced by a palladium catalyzed hydrogenation reaction to convert pyrazole 1 into the amide2. Toluene was introduced as a heat solvent which increased the safety of the process and reduced the levels of thionyl chloride to 1.2-1.6 equivalents. To convert the nytropyrazole (2) to the amine (3) heterogeneous hydrogenation in ethyl acetate was used. A number of reagents, including thionyl chloride, oxalyl chloride and N,N-cabonyldiimidazole (CDI) are used to examine the activation of the carboxylic acid. CDI costs around 8$/mol and provide such advantages for instances; high quality product, robust and clean chemistry. Furthermore, it provided a combination of the three reactions (hydrogenation, acid activation and acylation) into a single step, employed the ethyl acetate solvent with a simple recovery process and used low energy. In addition, VOC emissions were avoided such as (EtCl) that generated from the interaction of ethyl chloride with thionyl chloride or oxalyl chloride. Moreover, 90% chemical yield over three chemical reactions is produced and optimized to 96%. Cyclisation Reaction: The resulting product is heated for several hours and cyclised with 1.2 equivalents of potassium t-BuOH and t-BuOK. In order to minimize the environmental wastes, this process is run at high concentration (2.5-3.75L Kg-1). Water is added to dilute the reaction and the pH was adjusted with 4M HCl to the isoelectric point (7.5). Clinical very high quality yield of 95% sildenafil was obtained by filtration. Using 2-butanone citric acid, sildenafil was converted to sildenafil citrate to give a yield of 99 to 100%. Sildenafil History of Sildenafil: Initially Viagra was developed to treat angina (heart disease). In Morriston hospital, the drug was tried on men in 1991-1992. The clinical observation showed that the drug enhance penile erection more than treating angina. Pharmaceutical company, Pfizer commercialized the drug as a treatment for erectile dysfunction. In 1996, the drug was patented and approved on 27 March 1998 by FDA. It was the first approved drug for penile erection in the United States and the sales exceed 1$ billion in 1999-2001. The Pfizers patents on this drug will expire in 2011-2013. Dosage of Viagra: Viagra could be taken once per day as a dose between 25mg to 100mg between 30 min to 4 hours before sexual intercourse. Three dosages are available in market for this drug (25-50-100) mg with a cost of 10$ per pill for all dosages. http://www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/Sildenafil Mode of action: Pharmacodynamics: Effects on Penile Erection: Sildenafil citrate is a selective inhibitor of phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) and was used for the treatment of the male erectile dysfunction (known as impotence). It is a wide spread condition that effects around 30 million patients in United States. Nitric oxide is released during sexual stimulation and permeates through corpus cavernosum membranes. Then, the enzyme guanylate cyclase is stimulated to enhance levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in the corpus cavernosum. cGMP has an effects on smooth muscle relaxation and increases blood flow lead to an erection of the penis. Level of PDE5 is high in the corpus cavernosum which hydrolyzes cGMP and leads to inactive GMP. Levels of cGMP in men with impotence are low and as a consequence PDE5 quickly hydrolyses these levels of cGMP. Now, the sildenafil acts by inhibiting the actions of PDE5 and increases the levels of cGMP which cause the erection. (6) figure involved Erection Nitric Oxide Guanylate Cyclase Sildenafil binds to PDE5 and blocks action GMP cGMP Effects on Visual Function: In patients taking sildenafil, it has been reported such visual abnormalities for example; increased blurred vision and perception of light. These effects usually happened with dose more that 100mg which is correlated to the weaker inhibition effects of sildenafil on PDE6 that regulates signal transduction pathways in the retinal receptors. (2) Cardiovascular Effects: Sidenafil has effects on blood pressures by producing transient reduction in systolic and diastolic at 1 hour after the dose. The clinical tests showed no observed effects on heart rate. Sildenafil effects are not age or dose dependent. (2) Clinical trials: The sildenafil was tested in vitro to study the inhibition of PDE5 in human blood platelets. The results showed the potency of sildenafil and it is a selective inhibitor of both c GMP PDEs. Also, a number of trials were carried on rabbit corpus cavernosum to examine the effect on the muscle. From the results, appear that sildenafil was potent in relaxing the corpus cavernosum. Furthermore, to evaluate smooth muscle relaxation, set of experiments were carried in rabbit isolated aortic rings. Sildenafil showed similar values in both denuded and endothelial intact aortic rings. (28) Side Effects from Clinical studies: Patients receiving Viagra showed similar adverse effects in all trials. Some studies showed more effects with increased dose. There were some adverse events reported when Viagra is taken in flexible dose for example; headache, rash, dizziness, diarrhea, urinary tract infection, flushing, dyspepsia and nasal congestion. http://www.rxlist.com/viagra-drug.htm Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism: The cytochrome P450 3A4 metabolizes sildenafil which changes to an active N-desmethyl metabolite that has the 50% activity of the drug for inhibiting PDE5. This metabolite has 40% plasma concentrations of sildenafil, therefore it possess 20% of the pharmacological effects of sildenafil. Terminal half-lives of sildenafil and its metabolite are 4 hours each. Sildenafil distributed into the tissues with a volume of 105 L and excreted in the feces as metabolites. In patients aged >65 years, plasma levels increased as well in patients suffered from hepatic impairment and renal impairment. (2) Viagra Plant: Pfizer Synthesis Facility, Ringaskiddy, Ireland Sildenafil citrate which is the active pharmaceutical ingredients for Viagra was manufactured by Pfizer at Ringaskiddy and the total output from Viagra sales was account for 15%. The facility covers 200 acres and composed of four production units with 500 people working there. OSP4 is the main plant at Ringaskiddy that increase production by 40% and started in 2001. Construction of the new synthetic plant (OSP4), a finished good building (FGB) and all other services were under responsibility of Project Management and Foster Wheeler. Plant started manufacturing in March 2001. Designing facility enable the OSP4 plant to produce primary bulk, batch pharmaceutical products at a reactor of 150,000 liters and six lines are at full scale. To increase service of OSP4, Pfizer was planning to build a third liquid waste incinerator. At the plant, the manufactured products are either bulk active or drug substances. For the bulk materials, they are sent in order to complete formulation and package for shipping. Production and plant facility: http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/pfizer/viagra/viagch4pg2.html For all drugs, initially they are produced in small a mounts for the investigation and in vitro analysis. Then, quantities are increased if the carried tests are successful to meet the needs for clinical trials and patients. For the first time, production of one kg of Viagra requires a series of eleven reactions with 23 kg of reagents and 139 liters of organic wastes. All preparations are carried in a microwave designed especially for organic chemistry. For scaling up the process, it has to be more efficient and result in fewer wastes. Currently, in Viagra production only 1.5 kg of reagents are used and release just 10 liters of wastes. The company aim to minimize the waste to 6 L per kilogram produced. Now, every year the demand is 45 tones for good quality Viagra in compared to 1998 where the l kg production was enough for people demands in 10 minutes. To scale up reaction, all starting materials were available commercially and used without purification. Using a microwave oven ETHOS 1600, synthesis was performed. In standard Pyrex glassware, all reactions were carried out with a reflux condenser. The reactions were performed by a program which made up of temperature monitoring and holding steps. Purity of the final product was measured using thin-layer chromatography and molecular weight was recorded by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. sealed vessels are used which controlled and monitored by computers to make the requir ed quantities of pure drug. Pipes are used to add the reagents into the vessel and the products are harvesting later on. Control panels are applied that allow the operator to make any required adjustments and monitoring the process. A microwave-transparent fluoroptic probe that inserted into the solutions was used to monitor the temperature of the stirred reactions mixture. To produce any pharmaceuticals, highest standards of hygiene are necessary and Laboratory should be clean and tidy. Misuse of Viagra in Asia: http://www.ergogenics.org/138.html (faked drug) According to World Health Organization (WHO), one of the most counterfeited drugs in Asia is Viagra which make a big business. Tourists in Thailand use fake Viagra which is bought over numerous pharmacies. Therefore serious health risks affected those tourists. Counterfeited medicines can impose the correct ingredients but fake package, or without active ingredients, wrong ingredients or with insufficient active ingredients. Fake Viagra made up of ingredients that enhance the bodys insulin production which can cause a danger drop in the concentrations of blood glucose. As a result lead to starving the energy of brain which in known as insulin shock syndrome. There is a widespread smuggling of fake and genuine Viagra in Thailand according to A Thai Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Unsurprisingly, Thailand is a centre for fake Viagra. Among young night-clubbers, Viagra is mixing with other party drug to increase the sexual desire. Viagra competitors: There were alternative medications prescribed for erectile dysfunction prior to the introduction of Viagra. Most of them are non-oral treatments. For example; the primary alternatives in the United States were vacuum constriction devices, penile injection therapy, penile prostheses, professional counseling and transurethral. Traditional remedies were used in other countries such as yohimbine. (4) Viagra Sales around the world: Firstly, after FDA granted approval of Viagra, it was sold in the United States. Nowadays more than fifty countries are selling Viagra in their pharmacies. On the U.S. market, one month after launch, the worth of sales was 400$ million which result from 300,000 Viagra prescriptions. Since then, 7$ per tablet was maintained by Pfizer. The average wholesale price is 8.75$ per pill in compare with other treatments such as; Caverject and Muse which priced at 20-30$ per pill. Furthermore, sales in most European countries began shortly in September 1998 after European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) granted European countries the registration for Viagra uses. In the United Kingdom, Sweden and republic of Ireland, the government Health System covers the purchases of Viagra for limited uses. Public awareness have been increased and focused on the safety issues in men taking Viagra and lead to limit the use of Viagra after reports over deaths and adverse effects that were sent to the FDA. U.S. and most other countries experienced prescription leveling off after information gained by people used the drug. Most of them were not actually suffer from erectile dysfunction. After drugs approval in the United States, Latin America launched the drug. Then, Viagra was available in a number of Asian countries, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. In 1999, Japan approved drugs uses after it accepted from other countries the clinical trials data for the first time. (4) Environmental Performance: In the medicinal route, there are a number of organic solvents included in the production of 1000 kg of drug substance and the volume of these solvents equal to 125,000 liters. These solvents are reduced to 13,500 liters in the commercial route. The solvents required in both routes are illustrated in figure 1. Organic wastes from medicinal route Organic wastes from commercial route For environmental assessment, the reduction of some solvents for example; chlorinated solvents and highly volatile solvents such as; methyl chloride, methanol, acetone and diethyl ether. Elimination of these solvents results in elimination of atmospheric emissions. T-butanol that has been used in the commercial route is completely water soluble and is difficult for reuse. In order to improve environmental performance, t-buanol is replaced by another solvent to facilitate recovery. The optimized process was developed in Ringaskiddy and will be used in the production plant which will give 4 l kg-1 of the final optimized solvent usage. (5) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_economy Atom economy is the efficiency of conversion all reactants in a chemical process in a way of all atoms involved and no atoms are wasted. All starting materials equal to generated process, this represent an important concept in green chemistry. Reaction mass efficiency is a measure for the effect of yield and an increase of used reagents. Between 1994 and 1997 where the new commercial route was introduced, there was an improvement in the reaction mass efficiency and chemical yields. In contrast, the atom economy remained constants over time. Comparisons of these parameters between 1994 and 1997 is shown in figure Fig. Atom economy, chemical yield and RME at 1994, 1997 and the future target in the sildenafil citrate process. The aqueous and organic wastes are actually measured and from modeling process the atmospheric emissions are estimated. There was a large reduction in the aqueous waste when the commercial route was introduced into the production. Moreover, upon introduction of the commercial route, again there was a noticeable reduction in the organic wastes between 1994 and 1997. Due to the impact of introducing solvent recovery operations and reuse in the manufacturing process, a further large reduction occurred after 1997. These decreasing reflect the importance of eliminating wastes and controlling route selection. For the vapor emissions, there have been smaller diminish in the released amount. In addition, it was found there was 35% decrease in the estimated energy used between 1994 and 1997. There are two reasons behind smaller reduction in the vapor emissions and the used energy; firstly, in order to maximize the yield, there is a significant level of solvents stripping performed in the comm ercial process. Secondary, the chemistry team actively managed and followed such parameters for instance; organic, aqueous wastes and yield. On the other hand, they calculated retrospectively the emissions and energy. (5) Figure shows the comparisons between these wastes at various times. The E-factor is the total kilos of wastes per kilogram of product. In commercial route of Viagra production, the E-factor is 6 kg kg-1 which is less than the industry standard of (25-100) (6) Low volumes of the complicated chemical products and the E-factor of the commercial route for Viagra production generate fewer wastes per year. For all of the environmental awareness taken by Pfizer for the sildenafil citrate process, UK Award was granted to this company in 2003. (2) Patents: According to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, patent for Viagra by Pfizer will expire on March 27, 2012. Then, a cheap generic version of the blockbuster erectile dysfunction drug will be sold by any drug company. This will allow more competition between Pfizers Viagra and the new generic versions and more options with cheaper prices for patients. Pfizer has three options to stay in the Viagras market. Firstly, it can market itself as the main company for selling Viagra, taking into account there are over 25 million men used its version and they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t like to change. Secondary, it can apply for Viagra with FDA for OTC (over-the-counter). Finally, while producing an upgraded version of Viagra which will continue holding value of the patented product, it can license the original recipe to Viagra to other companies. http://www.accessrx.com/research/viagra-patent-expires.htm Alternative Routes to Sildenafil: There are more than 15 different routes have been reported in the chemical and patent literature to sildenafil. Pfizer examined two main alternatives during the development process either by synthesis sildenafil through the aldehyde 11 to produce dihydrosildenafil 12 then oxidize the product or by the halo derivatives for example 13 or 14. 52 % of sildenafil yielded from condensation between aldehyde and aminopyrazole to give dihydrosildenafil by adding an azeotropic distillation to remove the water by product. The yield can be increased to 95% as shown by some workers. (PATENT 22918) Aldehyde Amine Dihydrosildenafil Sildenafil Oxidation of dihydrosildenafil either by using sodium hydrogen sulphite (NaHSO3) or using small quantity of trifluoroacetic acid and Pd/C at high temperature generated a good yield of drug (patent WO 01-98303). Dihydrosildenafil Sildenafil Combination between a nucleophilic displacement reaction that uses ethanol as a solvent and a hindered alkoxide (KOBU) or ethoxide (EtOH) as a base and the cyclization reaction which uses a compound like halo derivatives is another potential synthesis for sildenafil. The combination reaction works for both cyclisation compounds, but by using a compound where (x= F) the yield from combination is 100%. The use of the chloro-series compound (x=cl) in the cyclisation reaction is better because of 2-chlorobenzoic acid is cheaper than 2-ethoxybenzoic acid. (Patent number EP 0994 115) Figure (13, 14, synthesis) Halo Derivatives X= Cl X= Fe, yield= 100% In the end, all of these alternative routes were put on hold due to the high efficiency of the commercial route and the time pressures of the development program. (6) (3) In the WO Patent (98284), amidine 10 or iminoether 11 can be used in order to build pyrimidine ring (sildenafil). By a Pinner reaction, the iminoether is made from the nitrile. Amidine is made by reaction of the nitrile with chloromethylaluminium amide which is synthesized from trimethyl aluminium (Me3Al) and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) Nitrile Amidine Iminoether Sildenafil Intermediate 14 was prepared from reaction of the acid intermediate 13 with thionyl chloride (SOCl2) to give the lactone which then can be reacted with ammonia (NH3) and (EtOH) to produce the pyrazolopyrimidinone which is away to make sildenafil. Acid intermediate Lactone Sildenafil (Patent EP 1 002 798) sildenafil synthesis from intermediate (6), can be done by chlorosulphonate the intermediate 16 and before cyclisation the intermediate convert to the sulphonamide6. Sildenafil There are many patents activities in producing nonconvergent synthesis of sildinafil. Workers at the Torcan Company reduced Carbamate by (LiALH4) to sildenafil in ayield of 61%. ( Patent 2 235 642). Carbamate Sildenafil Also, sildenafil was synthesized from pyrazolopyrimidinone and the sulphamoyl chlorid (which is prepared by SO2Cl2 and N-methylpiperazine reaction) using Friedel-Craft reaction which requires ALCl3 by workers at the India Orchid company. (Patent EP 1 077 214) Pyrazolopyrimidine and sulphamoyl chloride Sildenafil Furthermore, workers in Cipla Company have synthesized sildenafil by double methylation of this intermediate by using formic acid and formaldehyde (CH2O) and (HCO2H) as the final step. (Patent WO Patent 01/ 19827) Sildenafil

Essay --

During exercise, in order to obtain energy, muscles have to burn carbohydrates and lipids, which causes the production of heat. The increase in metabolism during exercise increases the body’s core temperature (Burton, 2004). Circulating blood flow is used to transport the excessive metabolic heat produced by the working muscles. The heat is transported to the surface of the body and it is released to the environment. Radiation, convection or by evaporation of sweat, are the three main ways the body gets rid of excessive heat (Fortney, 1985). The hypothalamic neurons control the body temperature (Soare, etl,2011). These neurons modulate the autonomic and hormonal control of heat production and heat loss. This allows for the constant maintenance of core body temperature when the environment temperature changes (Soare, etl,2011). When the core body temperature is at an ideal temperature, the internal organs and the bodily systems work at their best. The ideal temperature to be at is 98.6 F. Having it below 96 F or over 100 F the organs and systems will not work properly. Exercise sessions performed 2-3 times a week can help improve cardiovascular fitness (White, 2013). Not being active enough increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other disorders. Over time, exercise reduces cardiovascular risk, reduces blood pressure and decreases insulin resistance (Cohen, 2013). The cardiovascular system is a direct beneficiary of increased physical activity. Exercise can minimize the effects of aging on the cardiovascular system and improve circulation, heart function, blood fat lipid levels, and reduce blood pressure. On the other hand, people who live a sedentary life are more prone to cardiovascular disease (Exercise for ... ...s that exercise will have on the body. Oxygen demand increases when doing a physical activity. This causes the person to breath heavy. During exercise, the respiratory rate will elevate and might remain elevated after heavy exercise for up to 1–2 h. During strenuous exercise, the heart rate and stroke volume increase to about 90% of their maximum values. The body can never use oxygen at a higher rate than the rate at which the cardiovascular system can transport oxygen to the tissues (Burton, 2004). Staying physically fit will lose body fat, increase energy, and improve confidence (Bergen, 2013). To prevent weight gain, 150-250 minutes of moderate exercise a week is recommended. People that exercise have decrease in body fat and an increase in quality of life. Their energy level was also measured and they scored higher than the controlled group (Burnham, 2002). Essay -- During exercise, in order to obtain energy, muscles have to burn carbohydrates and lipids, which causes the production of heat. The increase in metabolism during exercise increases the body’s core temperature (Burton, 2004). Circulating blood flow is used to transport the excessive metabolic heat produced by the working muscles. The heat is transported to the surface of the body and it is released to the environment. Radiation, convection or by evaporation of sweat, are the three main ways the body gets rid of excessive heat (Fortney, 1985). The hypothalamic neurons control the body temperature (Soare, etl,2011). These neurons modulate the autonomic and hormonal control of heat production and heat loss. This allows for the constant maintenance of core body temperature when the environment temperature changes (Soare, etl,2011). When the core body temperature is at an ideal temperature, the internal organs and the bodily systems work at their best. The ideal temperature to be at is 98.6 F. Having it below 96 F or over 100 F the organs and systems will not work properly. Exercise sessions performed 2-3 times a week can help improve cardiovascular fitness (White, 2013). Not being active enough increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other disorders. Over time, exercise reduces cardiovascular risk, reduces blood pressure and decreases insulin resistance (Cohen, 2013). The cardiovascular system is a direct beneficiary of increased physical activity. Exercise can minimize the effects of aging on the cardiovascular system and improve circulation, heart function, blood fat lipid levels, and reduce blood pressure. On the other hand, people who live a sedentary life are more prone to cardiovascular disease (Exercise for ... ...s that exercise will have on the body. Oxygen demand increases when doing a physical activity. This causes the person to breath heavy. During exercise, the respiratory rate will elevate and might remain elevated after heavy exercise for up to 1–2 h. During strenuous exercise, the heart rate and stroke volume increase to about 90% of their maximum values. The body can never use oxygen at a higher rate than the rate at which the cardiovascular system can transport oxygen to the tissues (Burton, 2004). Staying physically fit will lose body fat, increase energy, and improve confidence (Bergen, 2013). To prevent weight gain, 150-250 minutes of moderate exercise a week is recommended. People that exercise have decrease in body fat and an increase in quality of life. Their energy level was also measured and they scored higher than the controlled group (Burnham, 2002).

Technology and the Future of Work :: Robotics Technology Electronics Essays

Technology and the Future of Work Every society creates an idealised image of the future - a vision that serves as a beacon to direct the imagination and energy of its people. The Ancient Jewish nation prayed for deliverance to a promised land of milk and honey. Later, Christian clerics held out the promise of eternal salvation in the heavenly kingdom. In the modern age, the idea of a future technological utopia has served as the guiding light of industrial society. For more than a century utopian dreamers and men and women of science and letters have looked for a future world where machines would replace human labour, creating a near workerless society of abundance and leisure. (J Rifkin 1995 p.42) This paper will consider developments in technology, robotics, electronic miniaturisation, digitisation and information technology with its social implications for human values and the future of work. It will argue that we have entered post modernity or post Fordism, a new age technological revolution, which profoundly effects social structure and values. Some issues that will be addressed are: elimination of work in the traditional sense, longevity, early retirement, the elimination of cash, the restructuring of education, industry and a movement to global politics, economics and world government. In particular this paper will suggest that the Christian Judao work ethic with society's goals of full employment in the traditional sense is no longer appropriate, necessary or even possible in the near future, and that the definition of work needs to be far more liberal. It argues that as a post market era approaches, that both government and society will need to recognise the effects of new technology on social structure and re-distribute resources, there will need to be rapid development of policies to assist appropriate social adjustments if extreme social unrest, inequity, trauma and possible civil disruption is to be avoided. Yonedji Masuda (1983) suggests we are moving from an industrial society to an information society and maintains that a social revolution is taking place. He suggests that we have two choices ‘Computopia' or an ‘Automated State', a controlled society. He believes that if we choose the former, the door to a society filled with boundless possibilities will open; but if the latter, our future society will become a forbidding and a horrible age. He optimistically predicts our new future society will be ‘computopia' which he describes as exhibiting information values where individuals will develop their cognitive creative abilities and citizens and communities will participate voluntarily in shared goals and ideas. Barry Jones (1990) says we are passing through a post-service revolution into a post- service society - which could be a golden age of leisure and personal

Children’s literature Essay

What is literature? Literature is (a) imaginative or creative writing; (b) distinguish writing, with deep sublime, noble feelings. It includes oral tradition passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth (e. g. proverbs, myths, legends, epic, folk song, etc. ). Literature, as defined by the oxford, etc. , valued as works of art (drama, fiction, essays, poetry, biography) contrasted with technical books and journalism; (2) all the writing of a country (French lit. ) or a period (18th Century English Lit. ); (3) printed material describing or advertising e. g. pamphlets; (4) books dealing with special subjects, travel, poultry farming. Literature is an art expressing beauty through the medium of language; a recreation through language of human situation and experiences, the orchestration of the manifold but elemental experiences of man blended into harmonious and desired patterns of expressions and a faithful reproduction of life executed in an artistic pattern (Del Prado). Why Study Literature? Literature leads to personal fulfilment and academic gains. Separating the values into personal and academic is an intellectual distinction, since both types benefit the students and are all proper parts of a student’s schooling. The distinction is useful, however, since teachers and librarians must often justify the benefits of literature in the classroom and find the academic benefits the most convincing ones for administrators and parents. Enjoyment The most important personal gain that good books offer to students is the most obvious one-enjoyment. Those of you who read widely as students will never forget the stories that were so tragic that you almost cried out, some were so funny that you laughed out, the poem that was so lifting that you never forgot it, or the mystery that was so scary that your heart thumped with apprehension. Such positive early experience often leads to a lifetime of reading enjoyment. Imagination and Inspiration By seeing the world around them in new ways and by considering ways of living other than their own, students increase their ability to think divergently. Stories often map the divergent paths that our ancestors might have taken or that our descendants might someday take. Through the vicarious experience of entering a different world from the present one, students develop their imaginations. In addition, stories about people, both real and imaginary, can inspire students to overcome obstacles, accept different perspectives, and formulate personal goals. The Academic Value of Literature to Student In addition to the personal benefits of literature for yong readers, there are several important academic benefits. Reading Many of you may have reached the common-sense deduction that reading ability, like any other skill, improves with practice. Many teachers and librarians believe that regular involvement with excellent and appropriate literature can foster language development to young people and can help them to learn to read and to value reading. Writing Since people tend to assimilate or adopt what they like of what they read and hear, young people may, by listening to and reading literature, begin to develop their own writing â€Å"voice†, or unique, personal writing style. By listening to and reading excellent literature, children are exposed to rich vocabulary and excellent writing styles, which serve as good models for their own speaking and writing voices. The acquisition of a larger vocabulary through reading offers young writers a better word choice for their own stories. Devices found in books such as the use of dialect, dialogue, and precise descriptions are often assimilated into students’ own writing. Vicarious Experience When a story is convincing written that readers feel as though they have live through an experience or have actually been in the place and time where the story is set, the book have given them a vicarious experience. Experiences such as these are broadening students to stories from many lands and cultures, teachers and libraries are building a solid foundation for multicultural and international understanding. Walking in someone else’s shoes often help students to develop a greater capacity to empathize with others. Students around the world can benefit from stories that explain what life is, for people who are restricted by handicaps, politics, or circumstances or whose lives are different from theirs because of culture or geography. Likewise, young readers of today can relate on a more personal level with the events and people of history. Heritage Stories that are handed down from one generation to the next connect us to our past, to the roots of our specific cultures, national heritage, and general human condition. Stories are the repositories of culture. Knowing the tales, characters, expression, riddles, lullabies, songs, and adages that are part of our cultural heritage makes us culturally literate. Stories based on fact help young people to gain a greater appreciation for what history is and for the people, both ordinary and extraordinary who made history. Art Appreciation Illustration in some literature books (Children’s Literature) can be appreciated both for its ability to help tell the story (cognitive value) and for its value as art (aesthetic value). Picture books are profusely illustrated books in which the illustrations are, to varying degrees, essential to the enjoyment and understanding of the story. For this reason, illustrations in picture books are said to be integral to the story. The illustration in picture books provides actual plot or concept information as well as clues to character traits, settings, and moods. Without the illustrations, therefore these books would be diminished, and in some case the story would make no sense or would be nonexistent.